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发表于 2019-9-27 14:23:04
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本文较长，请先读最后的第三部分“3.怎么学语法”
---------------------------人生苦短的分割线-------------------------
英语语法提纲（佟登青）
目录
1.词
1.1词汇的基本知识
1.1.1词义
1.1.2词性和词义的变化：前缀、后缀、复合词
1.2名词
1.3代词
1.4动词
1.4.1实义动词
1.4.2系（动）词
1.4.3助动词
1.4.4情态动词
1.4.5虚拟语气
1.5介词
1.6连词
1.7形容词
1.8副词
1.9数词
1.10冠词
2.句
2.1句子的基本知识
2.1.1三个原则
2.1.2英语句子的基本结构
2.1.3标点符号
2.2简单句
2.2.1四种句型：陈述句（肯定、否定），疑问句（一般、特殊、反意），祈使句，感叹句
2.2.2陈述句的五种基本结构
2.2.3 there be结构
2.2.4简单句的组合
2.2.5形式主语it
2.2.6强调和倒装
2.3后置修饰语
2.3.1介词短语后置
2.3.2形容词短语后置
2.3.3现在分词后置
2.3.4过去分词后置
2.3.5动词不定式后置
2.4主从复合句：名词性从句
2.4.1主语从句
2.4.2宾语从句
2.4.3名词性从句的形式
2.5主从复合句：定语从句
2.5.1关系代词用作从句的主语
2.5.2关系代词用作从句中动词的宾语
2.5.3关系代词用作从句中介词的宾语
2.5.4关系副词引导的定语从句
2.6主从复合句：状语从句
2.6.1时间
2.6.2地点
2.6.3原因
2.6.4结果
2.6.5目的
2.6.6方式
2.6.7比较
2.6.8让步
2.6.9条件
2.6.10短语结构充当状语
2.7非谓语动词：代替后置修饰语和从句
3.怎么学语法
3.1模仿跟读
3.2按照英文语序做中文理解
3.3千万不要背语法点！！！
1.词
1.1词汇的基本知识
1.1.1词义
核心义（一个或多个）、衍生义
1.1.2词性和词义的变化：前缀、后缀、复合词
（1）前缀：大多数用于改变词的意思，词性不变
反义：un (unimportant, uncover), in (incomplete, indifferent), im (impossible), dis (discontent, disrespect, disappear), de (deregulate), anti (anti-fascism), a (ahistorical), ab (abnormal), ir/il (irregular, illegal)
前后：pre/post (prehistoric, post-911, postgraduate)
重复：re (retry, review)
相互之间：inter (international, interaction, interpret)
错误：mis (misleading, misunderstand)
大小：mini (minimum), micro/macro (microscope, macro economy), super/hyper (supermarket)
半：semi (semi-conductor)
多：multi (multi-natianal)
自我：self (selfish, self-esteem)
变副词：a (asleep, aside)
过度：over (oversimplify, overestimate)
不足：under (underestimate)
使：en (encourage, enact, enable)
远程：tele (telescope)
跨越：trans (transnational, translate)
下面、次级：sub (subtitle, subway, submarine)
（2）后缀：大多数用于改变词性，词义不变
（名词）人、者、家：er/or (employer, actor), ess (actress), ee (employee), ist (artist, Marxist), ian (musician), an/ese/man (Russian, European, Italian, Chinese, Englishman, policeman)
（名词）状态、性质：ness (kindness), ship (friendship), y/cy/ty/ity/ry/try (jealousy, discovery, vacancy, safety, reality, rivalry), th (truth), ence/ance (difference, importance), dom (freedom), hood (childhood)
（名词）过程、结果：ment (development), tion/ation/sion (suggestion, explanation, decision), ture/ure (failure, exposure), ing (building), al (refusal), age (marriage), sis/ses (analysis/analyses)
（名词）主义：ism (Marxism, capitalism)
（名词）学科：ics (electronics, physics), logy (ecology, geology)
（形容词）……的：ful (useful, careful, beautiful), tive/sive (imaginative, creative, expensive), ous (dangerous), al/ical/tal (national, identical, mental), ant/ent (different, important), y (rainy), ly (friendly, costly), ary/tary/tory (imaginary, revolutionary, elementary), some (troublesome, awesome), en (wooden), ish (selfish), ial/tial/sial (commercial, partial, contraversial), ic/tic (romantic)
（形容词）能……的：able/ible (reliable, responsible)
（形容词）不……的：less (useless, careless)
（形容词）使（感到、变得）……的：ing (interesting, exciting)
（形容词）被……的：ed (interested, excited)
（副词）……地：ly (beautifully), ward (backward)
（动词）……化：ise/ize (realise/realize), ify (clarify), en (strengthen, deepen), ate
（3）复合词的构词法
good-looking, thought-provoking, sightseeing, well-connected, man-made, rainforest, greenhouse, wrongdoing, air-conditioner, grown-up, playground, five-year plan, six-year-old child, two-sided sword
1.2名词
可数名词：单数、复数（s/x/sh/ch+es, f-->ves, y-->ies）
单复数同形：fish, sheep
不可数名词：不能直接加数量词，必须用量词。例：a slice / loaf of bread一片/一根面包，a bottle of milk一瓶牛奶，a drop of water一滴水。
1.3代词
人称代词（主格/宾格，单数/复数，第一/第二/第三人称）
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
主格（单数）
I (am / was / do / have done)
you (are / were / do / have done)
he / she / it (is / was / does / has done)
主格（复数）
we (are / were / do / have done)
you (are / were / do / have done)
they ( are / were / do / have done)
宾格（单数）
me
you
him / her / it
宾格（复数）
us
you
them
物主代词
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
物主代词（形容词）
my / our
your
his / her / its / their
物主代词（名词、表语）
mine / ours
yours
his / hers / its / theirs
反身代词
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
反身代词（主格）
myself / ourselves
yourself
himself / herself / itself / themselves
疑问代词
what, who / whom, where, when, why, how, whether / if
1.4动词
1.4.1实义动词
时态：3（时间：现在，过去，将来）*3（状态：一般，进行，完成）+2（完成进行，过去将来）=11种常用时态
主谓一致：接近原则，中心词原则
1.4.2系（动）词
实义动词的特殊一类，表示主语的属性，后面接表语（名词或形容词），称为“系表结构”。包括：be, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, weigh, appear, seem, sell; become, grow, get, turn, fall, go, come等。
1.4.3助动词
百搭，表示时态、情态、语态（被动）。
（1）基本助动词（3个）：be, do, have。
be (am, is, are, was, were, been, being)：实义动词的核心意思是“是”（但在疑问句和否定句里同时兼任助动词的角色），作为助动词表示进行时（be doing）、将来时（be leaving, be going to do）或被动语态（be done）。
do / does / did：实义动词的核心意思是“做”，作为助动词主要用于否定句和疑问句，表示一般现在时和一般过去时。作为助动词如果用于肯定句，则表示强调。
have / has / had：实义动词的核心意思是“有”，作为助动词表示完成时（have / has / had + done）。
（2）半助动词（2个）：have to, seem to, appear to, happen to。
1.4.4情态动词
助动词的特殊一类。后面相邻的实义动词或助动词要用动词原型（do, be doing, be done, have done）。
（1）常见的情态动词
can/could：（能力）能够；（概率）可能。过去式可以表示委婉语气。
may/might：（允许）能够；（概率）可能。过去式可以表示委婉语气。
must：（命令）必须；（概率）一定。
will/would：将；愿意。表示“愿意”还可以用would like to do。
shall：（用于第一人称）将；愿意。
should：应该。
ought to：应该。
dare：敢于。一般用否定句和特殊疑问句。
need：需要。一般用于否定句，needn't意为“不必”。
used to：过去常常做（现在已经终止）。
（2）情态动词+have done
can/could, may/might在表示概率的意思时，加have done表示对过去的猜测；但在表示能力、允许的意思时，加have done表示虚拟语气。
should, ought to, needn't加have done表示虚拟语气。
must加have done表示对过去的猜测。
1.4.5虚拟语气
表示明显虚假、明显与事实相反的内容。
动词时态要往过去的方向后退一格：一般现在时变为一般过去时（be统一用were），一般过去时变为过去完成时。
if only：意为“如果……就好了”，后面只能接虚拟语气的句子。
suggest：意为“建议”时用虚拟语气（should可以省略），意为“暗示、显示”时不用虚拟语气。
insist：意为“坚持要求某人做某事”时用虚拟语气（should可以省略），意为“坚持某种观点”时不用虚拟语气。
wish：表示对过去或现在的遗憾时用虚拟语气，表示对未来的祝愿时不用虚拟语气。
1.5介词
表示方位。
介词后面跟名词（或动名词、名词性短语、名词性从句）。例：get used to (doing) sth.（习惯于（做）某事）；look forward to (doing) sth.（期待（做）某事）。
介词后面如果是动词的被动语态则要加being。例：He has got used to being abused.（他已经习惯被虐待了。）
常见介词：
of：的，属于……的，关于……的，由……制作的。A of B的意思是B的A。例：a work of art一件艺术品，the meaning of life生命的意义。例外：量词在前。例：a pair of shoes一双鞋子，a piece of cake一块蛋糕。
by：通过……的手段，被……，在……旁边。
for：为，为了，支持。
against：反对。
about：关于。
to：去，到，对于。prefer A to B, look forward to, be used to, according to。
from：从。
at：在（某一点）。arrive at the airport。
in：在（某一空间）。arrive in Beijing。
into：进去。
out of：出去。
inside：在……里面。
outside：在……外面。
in front of：在……前面（位置）。
behind：在……后面（位置）。
before：在……之前（顺序）。
after：在……之后（顺序）。
on：在……之上（放置）。
under：在……之下（放置）。
onto：上去。
off：下去，离开。
over：在……上面（覆盖），超过。
above：在……上面（悬空），高于。
below：在……下面（悬空），低于。
with：和，跟着，随着。
within：在……之内。
without：不用。
beside：在……旁边。
near：在……附近。
around：在……周围。
across：横穿。
through：穿过，通过，经由。
along：沿着。
between：在……（两个东西）之间。
among：在……（许多东西）中间。
opposite：在……对面。
介词搭配：动词+介词，介词+名词
介词：in, on, off, over
动词：get, take, put
名词：time
1.6连词
连词vs副词：表示句子之间的逻辑关系时，副词要放在句子开头（首字母大写），后面加逗号（therefore, however, thus），连词后面直接跟句子，不能加逗号（hence, because, but / yet, and, or, as）。
however的两种词性分别表示不同的意思：副词however意为“然而、但是”，连词however意为“无论怎样”，相当于no matter how。
连词vs介词：连词可以跟谓语动词，介词后面只能跟名词（包括动名词doing和being done）。
to的词性：be going to do（连词），go to某地（介词），used to do（连词），get used to (doing) sth.（介词），look forward to (doing) sth.（介词），according to（介词），prefer ... to ...（介词）。
1.7形容词
修饰名词。
现在分词（使……的），过去分词（被……的、感到……的）：interest, excite, please。
比较级：the more + adj.（多音节词）；the adj.+ er（单音节词）
最高级：the most + adj.（多音节词）；the adj.+ est（单音节词）
1.8副词
修饰动词（主句谓语动词、从句谓语动词、非谓语动词）。
形容词+ly。例外情况：friendly, costly。
比较级：the more + adv.（多音节词）；the adv.+ er（单音节词）
最高级：the most + adv.（多音节词）；the adv.+ est（单音节词）
up, down, off
1.9数词
基数词：zero, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty one, twenty two...twenty nine, thirty, thirty one, thirty two...forty...fifty...sixty...seventy...eighty...ninety...ninety nine, one hundred / a hundred, a hundred and one, a hundred and two...a hundred and ninety nine, two hundred...three hundred...nine hundred...nine hundred and ninety nine, one thousand / a thousand, a thousand and one...a thousand and ninety nine, a thousand one hundred, a thousand one hundred and one...a thousand nine hundred and ninety nine, two thousand...nine thousand nine hundred and ninety nine, ten thousand...twenty thousand...a hundred thousand / one hundred thousand...nine hundred and ninety nine thousand nine hundred and ninety nine, one million / a million...one billion...one trillion...
序数词：1st（first），2nd（second），3rd（third），4th（fourth），5th（fifth），6th，7th，8th（eighth），9th，10th，11th，12th（twelfth），13th，14th，……20th（twentieth），21st（twenty first），22nd，23rd，24th，……，99th，100th（one hundredth），101st（a hundred and first），102nd，103rd，104th，……
分数：0.5（a half / zero point five），1/3（one third），2/3（two thirds），1/4（one fourth / a quarter），3/4（three fourths / three quarters），1.5（one and a half / one point five）。
倍数：两倍（double / twofold / two times），三倍（triple / threefold / three times），四倍（fourfold / four times）。
特殊数字：一双（a pair of），一打（12个）（a dozen），两打（24个）（two dozens of），半月（fortnight），十年（decade），百年、世纪（century），千年（millenium）。
日期、时间。
1.10冠词
不定冠词：a / an，表示泛指一个。强调语气中的a读成/ei/。
定冠词：the，表示特指某一个或某一些。强调语气中的the读成/ði:/。the后面加形容词表示这一类的所有东西：the disadvantaged弱势群体。
零冠词：用于复数名词前，表示泛指一些或一类。
2.句
2.1句子的基本知识
2.1.1三个原则
一个英语句子有且仅有一个主句（其余都是从句）；每个句子（主句和从句）有且仅有一个谓语动词；其他动词要用非谓语动词的形式（不定式to do、现在分词doing、过去分词done）。
2.1.2英语句子的基本结构
（状语1, ）+（状语2, ）+ … +（状语n, ）+【（各种前置修饰）+ S +（各种后置修饰）】+ V +【（各种前置修饰）+ O+（各种后置修饰）】+（ ,状语n+1）+（ ,状语n+2）+ … +（ ,状语n+m）
(The challenge) now (is) (to develop policies and practices) { based on a presumption of shared responsibility between men and women, and a presumption that there are potential benefits for men and women, as well as for families and the community, if there is greater gender equality in the responsibilities and pleasures of family life. }
语序：中文 VS 英文
大致相同：主-谓-宾
主要区别：修饰成分（定语、状语）的位置。英语经常在名词后，中文一般在名词前（西方人的表达更直接，先说重要的）
2.1.3标点符号
2.2简单句
2.2.1四种句型：陈述句（肯定、否定），疑问句（一般、特殊、反意），祈使句，感叹句
陈述句的肯定句：五种基本结构（见2.2.2）
陈述句的否定句：助动词 + not + 实义动词
一般疑问句：助动词 + 主语 + 实义动词
反问句：助动词的否定形式 + 主语 + 实义动词
特殊疑问句：特殊疑问词 + 助动词 + 主语 + （其他助动词+）实义动词
反意疑问句：陈述句 + , 助动词的相反形式（与陈述句的肯定/否定相反） + 主语
祈使句：实义动词原型
感叹句：what + 名词（+ 代词 + 实义动词）；how + 形容词（+ 代词 + 实义动词）
2.2.2陈述句的五种基本结构
（1）主+系+表（S+L+P）
表示主语的特征或状态：be, feel, look, sound, seem, smell, taste, appear
例：The soup tastes good.
表示主语由一种状态转变为另一种状态：become, grow, get, turn, fall, go, come
例：The leaf will turn yellow in autumn.
（2）主+谓（S+Vi）
这个结构中的动词为不及物动词，所表示的动作没有作用对象。
This trend began during the Second World War.
（3）主+谓+宾（S+Vt+O）：最基本、最常见的结构
此结构中的谓语动词是及物动词，后面必须跟上宾语。
例：Just like instant coffee, they want instant happiness.
（4）主+谓+间接宾语+直接宾语（S+V+O1+O2）
这个结构中的直接宾语是动作的作用对象，而间接宾语是动作的指向对象。
He showed the guard his passport. = He showed his passport to the guard.
（5）主+谓+宾+补（S+V+O+C）
此结构中的补语是对宾语的进一步说明。此结构的谓语动词常见为：appoint, believe, call, choose, consider, declare, elect, feel, find, keep, leave, let, make, name, nominate, prove, see, suppose和vote 等等，也要求是及物动词
例：Adversity makes men wise.
2.2.3 there be结构
表示（在某处）有某物。
2.2.4简单句的组合
并列（and, or, not only...but also..., either...or..., neither...nor...），因果（because, as, since, for; so），转折（although, though, despite, in spite of; but, while），条件（if, as long as），让步（even if, even though）
2.2.5形式主语it
（1）It is too + adj. + to + do sth.
表示否定的意思：太……了，以至于不能做某事。例：It's never too old to learn.
（2）It is + adj. + (for sb.) to do sth.
（对于某人来说，）做某事是……的。例：It's difficult for Chinese male football team to qualify for World Cup.
（3）It is + adj. + of sb. to do sth.
某人做的某事是……的。例：It's very kind of you to say so.（相当于You are very kind to say so.）
（4）it开头代替that引导的主语从句
参见2.4.1主语从句
2.2.6强调和倒装
2.3后置修饰语
简单修饰结构：中文顺序=英文顺序
一个美丽的姑娘=a beautiful girl
一个重要的对话=a critical conservation
复杂修饰结构：中文是从左到右，英语从右到左
针对孩子们的广告-->the advertisement aimed at children
经济活动主要依赖于牲畜的一种生活方式--> a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock
注意：也可以用定语从句来表达，但显得多余
2.3.1介词短语后置
the stages in the development of the farming industry 农业发展的各个阶段
the impact of A on B
the impact of telecommunications on population distribution
the impact of advertisement on children
the impact of public concern on environmental protection
2.3.2形容词短语后置
a choice important to my career 一个对我的职业生涯重要的决定
Yet there is dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the world's population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans.
2.3.3现在分词后置
表示中心词的主动动作
a man walking on the road 一个走在路上的人
2.3.4过去分词后置
被修饰名词是动作的承受者，存在被动关系
a description of an early timekeeping invention affected by cold temperatures
a cost involved in purifying domestic water
a method used to raise money for the bridge
2.3.5动词不定式后置
to do / to be done 表示将来或目的
an approach to deal with the puzzle
the theory to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world
for sb. to do sth. 表示由某人来做某事
an apple for her to eat
2.4主从复合句：名词性从句
2.4.1主语从句
What I am reading is interesting.
变体：主语从句如果太长，则经常被后置，主语位置使用it作为形式主语
That the moon itself does not give off light is common knowledge. ---> It is common knowledge that the moon itself does not give off light.
It + be + 过去分词 + that从句
It's reported that … 据报道……
It's believed that … 据信……
It is generally thought that… 人们普遍认为…
It has been found that … 现已发现……
It should be noted that … 应当注意……
It must be pointed out that … 必须指出……
还有say, expect, know, estimate, forecast, agree等也可以这么用。
It + be + 形容词 + that从句
It is clear that … 显然…
It is possible that … 很可能…
It is likely that … 很可能…
It is natural that … 很自然…
It is certain that … 可以相信
It is strange that … 奇怪的是…
It is fortunate that… 幸运的是…
It is necessary that … 有必要…
It + be + 名词(短语) + that从句
It is a pity that… 可惜的是…
It is a fact that… 事实是…
It is good news that… …真是太好了
It is a good thing that… …真是件好事
It is no wonder that… 难怪…
It is a shame that… 遗憾的是…
It is an honor that … 真荣幸…
It is common knowledge that… …是常识
It is my belief that… 我相信…
It is a miracle that… …真是奇迹
It + 不及物动词 + that 从句
It seems that … 似乎…
It happens that … 碰巧…
It comes about that … 结果是…
It follows that … 因此…/由此可见…
It turns out that … 结果证明是…
It + 动词搭配 + that 从句
It dawns upon/on sb. that … 某人突然想起…
It makes no difference that … ……无所谓
It is of little consequence that … ……无关紧要
It occurs to sb. that … 某人突然想起…
It doesn't need to be bothered that … 不必担忧…
It has been known for years that the seas are being overfished.
Fortunately, the White House is starting to pay attention. But it's obvious that a majority of the president's advisers still don't take global warming seriously.
例句：it作为形式主语的主语从句变体
It has been known for years that the seas are being overfished.
Fortunately, the White House is starting to pay attention. But it's obvious that a majority of the president's advisers still don't take global warming seriously.
Furthermore, it is obvious that the strength of a country's economy is directly bound up with the efficiency of its agriculture and industry, and that this in turn rests upon the efforts of scientists and technologists of all kinds.
It is an established fact that factory workers work better, harder, and have fewer accidents when their machines are painted orange rather than black or grey.
It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.
How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? (TPO21-P2)
2.4.2宾语从句
No one knows exactly whether there is life on other planet.
We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. (TPO21-P2)
Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one’s own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. (TPO21-P3)
2.4.3表语从句
English is what I like most among all subjects.
One of the most difficult aspects of deciding whether current climatic events reveal evidence of the impact of human activities is that it is hard to get a measure of what constitutes the natural variability of the climate. (TPO10-P1)
What we do know is that as we include longer time intervals, the record shows increasing evidence of slow swings in climate between different regimes. (TPO10-P1)
2.4.4同位语从句
从句不是对先行词的修饰或限定（定语从句），而是先行词的具体内容。
the fact that language is influenced by social situation
the realization that the resources of the national health systems were limited
a belief that all the health-care resources the community needed would be produced by economic growth
I love the saying that love, not time heals all wounds.
But that their minds are not different from our own is demonstrated by the fact that hard-won discoveries of scientists like Kepler or Einstein become the commonplace knowledge of schoolchildren and the once outrageous shapes and colors of an artist like Paul Klee so soon appear on the fabrics we wear. (C8T3P2)
While these records provide broadly consistent indications that temperature variations can occur on a global scale, there are nonetheless some intriguing differences, which suggest that the pattern of temperature variations in regional climates can also differ significantly from each other. (TPO10-P1)
2.4.3名词性从句的形式
（1）陈述句作句子成分
在陈述句首加上that，必不可少！
引导词为连词that。that在从句中即不做成分也没有实义，在不影响句子意思的情况下，宾语从句中的that可以省去。
English is important. ---> That English is important is an undoubted fact.
Love, not time heals all wounds. ---> I’ve learnt that love, not time heals all wounds.
The child should be sent to school. ---> My idea is that the child should be sent to school.
He succeeded in the experiment. ---> The fact that he succeeded in the experiment pleased everybody.
比较
That he said no word at the meeting was strange.
He said that no word at the meeting was strange.
原句
He said no word at the meeting was strange.
（2）一般疑问句作句子成分
先将疑问句的倒装语序变成陈述句语序，并在句首加上whether或if
引导词为连词whether和if。whether和if在从句中不作成分，但具有“是否”的含义，不能省去。
Will he come to my party? ---> Whether he will come to my party makes no different to me.
Does he need my help? ---> I don’t know if/whether he needs my help.
Will people live on the moon someday? ---> My question is whether people will live on the moon someday.
Is there life on other planet?--->Scientists have argued over the question whether there is life on other planets.
（3）特殊疑问句作句子成分
将疑问句的倒装语序变成陈述句语序
引导词为连接副词when, where, why, how, 连接代词who, whom, what, which, whose，其中，when, where, why, how在从句中作状语，who, whom, what在从句中作主、宾或表语，which, whose作定语，后接名词。引导词既做成分又有意义，不能省去。
Why did dinosaurs become extinct? ---> Why dinosaurs became extinct is still a mystery.
How many letters are there in the English alphabet? ---> I don’t know how many letters there are in the English alphabet.
What are we badly in need of? ---> Money is what we are badly in need of.
Where could we get the loan? ---> There arose the question where we could get the loan.
The new accessibility of land around the periphery of almost every major city sparked an explosion of real estate development and fueled what we now know as urban sprawl.
What we appreciate, enjoy or marvel at in the works of genius or the achievements of prodigies are the manifestations of skills or abilities which are similar to, but so much superior to, our own. (C8T3P2)
2.5主从复合句：定语从句
当我们能找到一个形容词去修饰一个名词的时候，我们可以直接用这个词去修饰那个名词。
但是，当我们想表达的意思无法用一个单词（词组）去描述的时候，那么就可以用一个句子去作修饰成分。
I don’t like lazy people.
I don’t like people who never keep their word.
例句：
All that glitters is not gold. 会发光的未必是金子。
God helps those who help themselves. 自助者天助。
歌曲：
That's why you go away (by Michael Learns To Rock)
Every breath you take (by Sting)
The disjunction between educational objectives that stress independence and individuality and those that emphasize obedience to rules and cooperation with others reflects a conflict that arises from the values on which these objectives are based. (GRE填空)
Seventeenth-century houses in colonial North America were simple structures that were primarily functional, carrying over traditional designs that went back to the Middle Ages. (老托9610-P4)
But that their minds are not different from our own is demonstrated by the fact that hard-won discoveries of scientists like Kepler or Einstein become the commonplace knowledge of schoolchildren and the once outrageous shapes and colors of an artist like Paul Klee so soon appear on the fabrics we wear. (C8T3P2)
先行词：被修饰的名词或代词，位于定语从句的前面。
连接词：关系代词（which, that, who, whom, whose, of which），关系副词（when, where, why）。
限定性定语从句：对先行词进行限制和确定，如果去掉，主句的意思就会变得不明确。
例：This is a shop that sells computers. 这是一家出售电脑的商店。
非限定性定语从句：从句是对先行词的补充说明，去掉也不影响主句的意思表达。前后由逗号隔开，而且不能用that连接。
例：Shakespear, whose plays are popular, was a great writer. 莎士比亚是伟大的作家，他的剧作很受欢迎。
比较：
The man with whom you shook hands just now is our teacher. 刚才你与之握手的那个人是我们的老师。
Mr Li, with whom you shook hands just now, is our teacher. 李先生是我们的老师，你刚才和他握了手。
2.5.1关系代词用作从句的主语
who指人，which指物，that既可指人也可指物。
注意：在非限定性定语从句中，不能用that。
The woman is a famous dancer. She lives next door. ---> The woman who lives next door is a famous dancer.
I like guys. They have a good sense of humor. ---> I like guys who have a good sense of humor.
An architect is a person who/that designs houses and buildings. 建筑师是设计房屋和高楼的人。
The island, which is at the mouth of the river, is being developed as a tourist site. 这个岛位于河口，正在被开发为旅游点。
Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven. (TPO6-P1)
Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. (TPO10-P2)
The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. (TPO13-P3)
2.5.2关系代词用作从句中动词的宾语
who / whom指人，which指物，that既可指人也可指物。
注意：在限定性定语从句中，连接词可以省略。
I’d really like to find a friend. I can trust him completely. ---> I’d really like to find a friend. I can trust who completely. ---> I’d really like to find a friend (who) I can trust completely.
He is the student. The teacher likes to praise him for his hard work. ---> He is the student. The teacher likes to praise who for his hard work. ---> He is the student (who) the teacher likes to praise for his hard work.
Each of the preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infant can detect or discriminate between stimuli. (TPO13-P3) 同位语从句？定语从句？
Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. (C6T2P3)
The player (who/whom/that) I beat in the tennis game is a seed player. 我在网球比赛中击败的那位球员是个种子选手。
The town, which thousands of travellers visit every year, is known for its stone bridges and small rivers. 这个小镇以小桥流水著称，每年有数以千计的游客来参观。
2.5.3关系代词用作从句中介词的宾语
whom / who指人，which指物，不能用that。
I’m talking about friends. You can share almost everything with them. ---> I’m talking about friends you can share almost everything with who. ---> I’m talking about friends (who) you can share almost everything with.
I hope I never have a boss. I can’t talk to him about my problem. ---> I hope I never have a boss I can’t talk to who about my problem. ---> I hope I never have a boss (who) I can’t talk to about my problem.
注意：介词如果后置，放在从句动词的后面，则可以省略连接词who / whom / which / that。介词前置时，只能用whom和which。
He is the guy. We are trying to get away from the guy. ---> He is the guy (who / whom / that) we are trying to get away from. = He is the guy from whom we are trying to get away.
I’d prefer someone. I have something in common with the person. ---> I’d prefer someone (who / whom / that ) I have something in common with. ---> I’d prefer someone with whom I have something in common.
注意：如果从句的动词是介词动词的特殊搭配，那么介词必须后置。
It is not necessary to look up in a dictionary every word (which/that) we come across in our reading. 没有必要去查我们阅读中遇到的每个词语。
Those surveyed had experienced chronic illnesses, for which orthodox medicine had been able to provide little relief. (C4T2P2) ---> Those surveyed had experienced chronic illnesses. Orthodox medicine had been able to provide little relief for the illnesses.
The ease with which truly great ideas are accepted and taken for granted fails to lessen their significance. (C8T3P2) ---> The ease fails to lessen their significance. Truly great ideas are accepted and taken for granted with ease.
But many experiments demonstrated that the stems of plants in which all the cells are killed can still move water to appreciable heights. (9510P1)
He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the market center. (9601-P2)
The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. (TPO18-P1-Q10)
The Academicians at whom it was aimed had worked and socialized in New York, the Hudson's port city, and had painted the river and its shores with varying frequency.
2.5.4关系副词引导的定语从句
when的先行词是时间。where的先行词是地点。why的先行词是reason等表示原因的名词，why只能用于限定性定语从句，且可以用that代替why。
相当于介词+关系代词：when = in / at / on which, where = in / at / on which, why = for which。但一般不会这么用。
I still remember the day when / on which we first met. 我还记得我们初次见面的那一天。
The city where / in which I was born has opened the first subway line recently. 我出生的那个城市最近开通了地铁。
This is the reason why / that / for which he left the company. 这是他为什么离开公司的理由。
注意：需要根据从句动词和先行词之间的具体关系来选择合适的连接词。
I like to take my vacation in the mountains, which is quiet and beautiful / where there are many plants. 我喜欢在山里度假，那儿宁静而美丽 / 那儿生长着许多植物。
I will never forget the days which we spent together / when we worked together. 我永远忘不了我们一起度过 / 一起工作的日子。
That is the reason which he gives me for his action / why he did that thing. 那是他向我提出的采取行动的理由 / 那是他为什么干那件事的理由。
注意：常用that的几种情况
（1）形容词最高级、序数词、only
This is the best film that has ever been made. 这是至今为止制作过的最好的电影。
This is the best film (that) I have ever watched. 这是我看过的最好的电影。
（2）all, anything, nothing, little, much
(Is there) anything (that) I can do for you? 我能为你做些什么？
（3）名词词组
They talked of persons and things (that) they remembered in the school. 他们谈起了他们记忆中学校里的人和事。
对比：They talked of persons and things which they remembered in the school. 他们谈起了他们记忆中的人和学校里的事。
注意：as / which可以修饰整个主句，但仅用于非限制性定语从句。若置于句首，或者有the same, such作修饰，通常用as而不是which。
He is terrified, as/which I can see from his eyes. 他很恐惧，我从他眼神中可以看出来。
As we all know / As is known to all, water resources are very limited on the earth. 众所周知，水资源在地球上很有限。
They stayed for the night in the same room as/that they had once rented. 他们在他们曾经租过的那个房间过夜。
注意：当先行词是物或抽象名词，whose可以和of which互换。
On the hill were maple trees whose leaves / the leaves of which / of which the leaves had turned red. 山上长满枫树，树叶都红了。
注意：在非限定性定语从句中，of which / of whom常用于基数词（one, two, three...）或some, most, all, none, either, neither等表示数量的词之后。
The audience, most of whom are college students, enjoyed the concert. 观众多数是大学生，他们很喜欢这场音乐会。
2.6主从复合句：状语从句
2.6.1时间
连接词：when, whenever, as, while, before, after, until, till, since, ever since, as soon as, the moment, the instant, once, hardly … when, no sooner … than, each/every time
例句：Each time he comes to see us, he will bring us some good news.
2.6.2地点
连接词：where, wherever
例句：Make a mark where you have any doubts or questions.
2.6.3原因
连接词：because, since, as, seeing that, considering that, given that, now that, not that …but that, in that
例句：Considering that they are just beginners, they are doing quite a good job.
2.6.4结果
连接词：so that, so… that, such… that
例句：She was so excited that she could hardly fall asleep.
2.6.5目的
连接词：so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case
例句：They took the front seats so that they might see more clearly.
2.6.6方式
连接词：as, as if, as though
例句：He acted as if nothing wrong had happened.
2.6.7比较
连接词：than, as ... as
例句：The project was completed earlier than we had expected.
2.6.8让步
连接词：though, although, no matter what / when / where / which / how (=whatever / whenever / wherever / whichever however), even if, even though, as
例句：We’ll try our best to finish the work in time though we are short of manpower.
2.6.9条件
连接词：if, unless, suppose, supposing, so long as, on condition that, provided that, providing that
例句：Suppose we can’t get the necessary equipment, what should we do next?
2.6.10短语结构充当状语
与后置修饰语的形式类似，但必须用逗号与主句隔开。短语结构的逻辑主语与主句的主语必须一致。
介词短语
形容词短语
现在分词短语
过去分词短语
Totally without light and subjected to intense pressures hundreds of times greater than at the Earth's surface, the deep-ocean bottom is a hostile environment to humans, in some ways as forbidding and remote as the void of outer space.
Using techniques first developed for the offshore oil and gas industry, the DSDP's drill ship, the Glomar Challenger, was able to maintain a steady position on the ocean's surface and drill in very deep waters, extracting samples of sediments and rock from the ocean floor.
Anxious to take advantage of the possibilities of commuting, real estate developers added 800,000 potential building sites to the Chicago region in just thirty years—lots that could have housed five to six million people.
2.7非谓语动词：代替后置修饰语和从句
3.怎么学语法
3.1模仿跟读
练习语法的正确方式不是背语法点，也不是做语法填空题，而是模仿跟读。
模仿跟读：录音读一句，暂停录音，你跟着模仿这句，然后再接着放录音，一直到能说得和原来录音或视频里的差不多流畅（可以在文本中对自然语流特点作出标注：连读/弱读/变音、不完全爆破/失爆/吞音、浊化/呲化、强调/重读/拖长音、语速快慢、停顿长短、语调升降）。对于一篇材料熟悉之后，或者水平提高之后，可以不暂停而直接跟读。
自然语流的特征提示了语法点，比如：停顿提示了从句，拖长音提示了连接词或插入语，连读提示了词语搭配，强调提示了主谓宾，升调提示了并列关系和一般疑问句，降调提示了句子结束和特殊疑问句。熟悉了自然语流的特点，语法点就了然于胸了，这时再去看语法书，就会觉得恍然大悟，这时再去做语法题，就会发现完全靠感觉就能轻松做对。
3.2按照英文语序做中文理解
读到英文句子的时候，不要按照中文的习惯语序进行翻译，而是按照英文语序做中文理解：按照英文顺序读下来，边读边用中文去理解。坚持这样练习，就能逐渐熟悉英语的表达习惯，而熟悉之后，也就会用了。
例：I am drinking a cup of tea which I bought yesterday from the supermarket.
在阅读或视听的时候，要这样理解：我正在喝一杯茶，（这杯茶）是我昨天从超市买的。而不能完全还原成中文语序：我正在喝一杯昨天从超市买的茶。
只有长期坚持这样练习，才能消除对于英语的陌生感，提高理解的速度。
3.3千万不要背语法点！！！
再次强调一遍，所有的语法知识点只要“听说过”就可以了，千万不要去死记硬背。关键在于用模仿跟读和英文语序中文理解的方法去训练，熟能生巧。 |
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